Level 3 - Source on Effects of Biocides

• 1. What are biocides and how widely are they used?
  • 1.1 How are biocides defined?
  • 1.2 When are bacteria considered resistant?
  • 1.3 How do biocides act?
  • 1.4 How widely are biocides used in Europe?
• 2. What are the main uses of biocides?
  • 2.1 What are the main applications for biocides in health care?
  • 2.2 In which consumer products are biocides used?
  • 2.3 How are biocides used in the food industry?
  • 2.4 How are biocides used in animal husbandry and in products of animal origin?
  • 2.5 How are biocides used in water treatment and industrial applications?
• 3. Is there evidence that bacteria resistant to biocides are emerging?
  • 3.1 How can bacterial resistance to biocides be determined?
  • 3.2 Has resistance to biocides been observed in health care applications?
  • 3.3 Has resistance to biocides been observed in consumer products?
  • 3.4 Has resistance to biocides been observed in the food production chain?
  • 3.5 Has resistance to biocides due to discharges to the environment been observed?
• 4. How can bacteria become resistant to biocides or antibiotics?
  • 4.1 How can bacteria become resistant to biocides?
  • 4.2 How can bacteria become resistant to antibiotics?
  • 4.3 Which resistance mechanisms are common to both biocides and antibiotics?
• 5. Does biocide use contribute to the development of antibiotic resistant bacteria?
• 6. What are the potential threats of biocide use in terms of bacterial resistance?
  • 6.1 How might the use of biocides constitute a direct or indirect threat?
  • 6.2 What are potential threats of using biocides in veterinary settings?
  • 6.3 What are potential threats of using disinfectants in health care settings?
  • 6.4 What are potential environmental threats of using biocides?
• 7. What explains resistance to both biocides and antibiotics?
  • 7.1 How can biocide exposure lead to antibiotic resistance?
  • 7.2 In practice, does resistance emerge in homes and the environment?
  • 7.3 How can dissemination of resistance genes lead to resistance?
  • 7.4 How can the formation of biofilms lead to resistance?
• 8. How can risks of resistance to both antibiotics and biocides be assessed?
  • 8.1 What factors increase the risk of resistance to both biocides and antibiotics?
  • 8.2 What (new) methods are required to effectively assess the risk of resistance?
• 9. Conclusions & recommendations